PHYTOCHEMICAL

Spices are food supplements or food products commonly used as flavouring and colouring agents, preservatives and/or herbs in folk medicine. Murraya koenigii (Linn, Spreng), (Family-Rutaceae) is a type of spice commonly called Curry leaves found in tropical and sub-tropical region and cultivated in China, Australia and Nigeria. It known as efirin oso in Yoruba and marugbo sanyan in Hausa. The aim of this study was to access the antibacterial activities of Murraya koenigii against Salmonella and Shigella species. Samples of commercial Murraya koenigii leaves were analysed and their phytochemical, phytocomponents and proximate components were assayed using standadrd methods. Also antibacterial activities of the olant extracts were investigated using well-in-agar diffusion methods. Data obtained for the different parameters were subjected to statistical analysis using the analysis of variance. The results of the phytochemical analysis revealed the presence flavonoid (8.81 ± 0.09 mg/100g), tannins (20.28 ± 0.53 mg/100g) and phenolic (44.83 ± 1.18 mg/100g) in aqueous extracts and flavonoid (67.1 ± 0.49 mg/100g), tannins (55.5 ± 1.98 mg/100g) and phenolic (68.0 ± 1.40 mg/100g) in ethanolic extract. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry confirmed the presence of Dodocanoic acid (0.40%), Tridecanoic acid (0.69%), Decanoic acid (0.29%), Tetramethyl-2- hexadecon-1-01 (1.65%), ctadecanoic acid (0.45%), Hexadecanoic acid (1.04%), Phthalic acid (1.14%), n-Hexadecanoic acid (29.6%), Hexadecanol (3.35%), acconic acid (6.23%), Octacosane (2.78%), Squalene (2.52%), Tetratetracontane (3.18%) and Cholesterol (1.57%). Zone of inhibition of the aqueous leave extract of Murraya koenigii on Salmonella sp and Shigella sp ranged from 0.10 ± 0.00 - 1.37 ± 0.03mm while zone of ethanolic extract ranged from 0.10 ± 0.00 - 1.67 ± 0.03mm respectively. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration ranged from 9.17 ± 2.20 - 45.0 ± 2.88 mg/ml for aqueous extract and 15.0 ± 7.64 - 90.0 ± 5.77 mg/ml for ethanolic extract. inimum actericidal Concentration (MBC) were negative in both aqueous and ethanolic extracts. The proximate analysis revealed the presence of Moisture (8.69 ± 0.52 %), Protein (19.73 ± 0.30%), Ash (1.95 ± 0.00 %), Fibre (4.31 ± 0.29 %), Lipid (6.53 ± 0.50 %) and carbohydrate (43.48 ± 1.72%). Shigella sp and Salmonella sp were resistant to septrin, ciprofloxacin, amoxicillin and perfloxacin and susceptible to sparfloxacin, augmentin and gentamycin with Salmonella sp having the highest multiple antibiotic resistance index of 0.5. The isolates were found to harbor plasmids. Plasmid profile of the bacterial isolates after curing showed that Shigella sp was totally cured while presence of visible bands was observed for Salmonella sp. signifying inherent resistance to antibiotics. The antibacterial activities observed in Murraya koenigii leaves extract is due to the presence of phytochemicals. The use of Murraya koenigii in folk medicine is therefore recommended

Cucumis sativus (cucumber) is known to contain a variety of bioactive substances and phytochemicals. Some of these chemical elements have been connected to the plant's traditional therapeutic uses. The aim of this study was to evaluate the proximate, phytochemical and phenolic contents of aqueous and ethanol extracts of Cucumis sativus. The Proximate analysis results showed that the medicinal plant contained more Nitrogen-Free Substances (NFS) and protein, but low level of fibre (p < 0.05), phytochemical analysis showed that alkaloids, tannins, saponins, and other polyphenols were present in the plant, Phenols and saponins were present in high concentrations, while glycosides concentrations were low. The ethanol extract had significantly higher total phenol, but total flavonoid, flavonol and proanthocyanidin contents were significantly higher in the aqueous extract than in the ethanol extract (p < 0.05). The results obtained in this study indicate that C. sativus is a reservoir of potentially useful chemical compounds which may serve as drugs and provide newer leads and clues for modern drug design. C. sativus is a good source of phenolic compounds and could be used as a natural constituent of food and
medicines

Urinary tract pathogens are increasingly resistant to conventional antibiotics, prompting interest in plant-derived bioactive agents. This study evaluated the phytochemical profile and antibacterial potential of Cinnamomum tamala bark extracts against selected clinical isolates. Dried bark samples were subjected to aqueous and ethanolic extraction, followed by phytochemical screening using GC–MS analysis. Antimicrobial activity was carried out using ditch plate and agar well diffusion methods, while minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values were determined via agar dilution techniques. The ethanolic extract demonstrated concentration-dependent inhibition, with zones of inhibition ranging from 8.25 ± 4.8 mm at 50 µg/mL to 21.75 ± 2.93 mm at 800 µg/mL, showing significant differences across concentrations (p = 0.034). The aqueous extract exhibited no effect at low concentrations but was active at higher concentration, producing inhibition zones up to 6.50 ± 3.77 mm, significantly different across groups (p < 0.001). MIC results indicated stronger activity for the ethanolic extract, particularly against E. coli (12.5 µg/mL), compared to the aqueous extract, which required higher concentrations (100–200 µg/mL) across organisms. Similarly, ethanolic MBC values ranged between 25–100 µg/mL, significantly lower than the consistent 200 µg/mL required for the aqueous extract. Phytochemical screening revealed alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, and phenols in both extracts, while saponins and glycosides were exclusive to the aqueous extract, and steroids and resins were unique to the ethanolic extract. GC–MS analysis identified major constituents including Squalene (21.13%), 9- Octadecenoic acid (17.62%), and 13-Octadecenal (16.89%) in the ethanolic extract, while the aqueous extract was dominated by 9-Borabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane (28.24%) and Cyclopropane derivatives (17.04%). These findings highlight the potent antibacterial efficacy of C. tamala ethanolic extract, particularly against E. coli, with activity linked to its terpenoid and fatty acid constituents. The results suggest that C. tamala may serve as a promising source of natural antimicrobials.

Bryophyllum pinnatum, commonly known as “Miracle Leaf,” has long been employed in traditional medicine for the treatment of infections and various oxidative stress-related ailments. This study aimed to evaluate and compare the phytochemical composition, antioxidant capacity, and antimicrobial activity of the aqueous and ethanol leaf extracts of B. pinnatum. Fresh leaves were collected, authenticated, air-dried, pulverized, and subjected to Soxhlet extraction using ethanol and distilled water. The extraction yields were determined, revealing a higher yield for the aqueous extract (18.3%) compared to the ethanol extract (14.3%). Preliminary qualitative phytochemical screening indicated the presence of diverse bioactive compounds, including alkaloids, flavonoids, phenols, tannins, saponins, glycosides, terpenoids, steroids, and anthraquinones in both extracts. Quantitative analysis showed that the ethanol extract contained higher concentrations of flavonoids (31.63 mg/g), phenolics (37.06 mg/g), and alkaloids (21.06 mg/g), whereas the aqueous extract exhibited elevated saponin content (31.57 mg/g). The antioxidant potential of the extracts was assessed using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays. The ethanol extract demonstrated superior free radical scavenging activity (IC₅₀ = 63.11 µg/mL) and reducing power (345.5 µmol Fe²⁺/g) compared to the aqueous extract, correlating with its higher phenolic and flavonoid contents. ntimicrobial activity was evaluated against clinically relevant pathogens, including Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus niger using agar well diffusion, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimum bactericidal concentration/minimum fungicidal concentration (MBC/MFC) methods. Both extracts displayed dose-dependent, broad-spectrum antimicrobial effects, with Gram-positive bacteria being more susceptible than Gram-negative bacteria, and fungi showing the least sensitivity. Notably, the ethanol extract exhibited greater potency, requiring lower concentrations to inhibit and kill test organisms. These findings collectively validate the ethnomedicinal use of B. pinnatum and highlight the influence of extraction solvent on bioactivity. The study underscores the potential of the ethanol leaf extract as a promising source of natural antioxidants and antimicrobial agents, warranting further pharmacological and mechanistic investigations for therapeutic development

Plants have shown immense contribution to man’s nutrition as they are also used for medicinal purposes. There is a need to develop alternative antimicrobial drugs for the treatment of infectious diseases, microorganisms are rapidly developing resistance to the available once. Hence, the leaf of Dacryodes edulis (African pear) was analyzed for its phytochemical and anti-bacterial properties on clinical bacteria isolates Klebsiella sp., Proteus sp. and Escherichia coli. Samples of leaf were obtained from Okhoro community in- Benin metropolis, dried, blended into powder and macerated using sterile distilled water and methanol as solvent. Antibacterial assay was carried out via Kirby Bauer disc diffusion method. Findings from this research showed that Dacryodes edulis leaf aqueous extract was active against Klebsiella sp. with a mean zone of inhibition (ZOI) of 8.00±0.00mm across all concentrations (12.5, 25, 50 and 100 µg/ml). Proteus sp. and E. coli had mean ZOI of 8 ±0.70mm at 12.5µg/ml and at 100µg/ml the ZOI was 10 ±0.28mm and 12 ±0.14mm respectively. Methanol extract was only active to Proteus sp and Klebsiella sp with a mean ZOI of 8 ±0.00mm at 12.5µg/ml and 25µg/ml respectively. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of aqueous extract against all isolates is 12.5µg/ml and it was bactericidal to only E.coli at a concentration of 50µg/ml. Methanolic extract had a MIC of less than 12.5µg/ml for Proteus sp and 12.5µg/ml for Klebsiella sp. The MBC was 12.5 and 50 µg/ml for Proteus sp and Klebsiella sp respectively. All test organisms were resistant to all standard antibiotics used. They were susceptible to gentamycin which serves a control. Despite the fact that the extract was able to inhibit the growth of the organisms, the isolates are regarded as resistant to the extract because their ZOI were less than the standard value of resistance which is 14. Phytochemical screening reveals that phenol, flavonoid, saponin, tannin, alkaloid and steroids were present in aqueous and methanol extract of the leaves .More work should be done to test the presence of active metabolites to determine its antibacterial activity.

Alstonia boonei De wild is a plant belonging to the Aponcyanacea family. Its leaves, root bark and stem bark parts have various traditional uses in parts of West Africa for the management of some ailments such as: Malaria, hypertension and cancer. The nutritional composition and phytochemical content of the leaf of Alstonia boonei De wild were explored under standard analytical methods in order to ingress the numerous potential of the plant. The qualitative phytochemical screening of aqueous extract of Alstonia boonei De wild, leaves showed the presence of saponins, tannins, alkaloids, phenols, steroids, cardiac glycosides, coumerins, phlobatannins and protein; with saponins, tannins, steroids, and phenol highly present. Flavanoids, terpenoids, emotins, anthraquinones and anthocyanins were seen to be absent. Variation of this composition was observed in the ethanol extract which showed that saponins, phenols, terpenoids, steroids, alkaloids, protein and anthocyanins were seen to be present in moderate proportion, whereas flavonoids, phlobatannins,coumerin, emotins and anthraquinones were seen to be absent, while cardiac glycosides was highly present. The medicinal value of Alstonia boonei De wild is influenced by the presence and levels of these secondary metabolites. The proximate analysis revealed that Alstonia boonei leaves are rich in carbohydrates (57.45 ± 1.38%), have a moderate content of Ash (3.67± 0.16%), crude protein (8.05 ± 00.05%), crude fats (9.50 ± 0.24%), and crude fibre (11.00 ± 0.47%); but a moderate content of moisture (10.30 ± 0.27%). The presence of high carbohydrates, protein, crude fats and fibre contents of the leaves may be responsible for their nutritive values

Laurus nobilis, generally known as “bay leaf” belongs to Lauraceae family of plants. It contains compounds which have potential use for food safety because of the antimicrobial properties. Its leaves are widely used in traditional medicines and for food seasoning. This study was aimed at investigating the phytochemical constituents and antifungal effects of Laurus nobilis on selected pathogens; Fusarium solani, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, and Penicillium chrysogenum which were obtained from hair, foot, and toenail samples from some students in the department of microbiology, University of Benin (UNIBEN) using swab sticks and confirmatory tests were carried out using cultural and biochemical methods. The fungi isolates were identified using cultural and morphological characteristics as well as the colour of spores, types of spores, and nature of hyphae. The phytochemical screening of the leaf was done using standard methods. Antifungal susceptibility was done using poisoned food method. Extraction was done after 2 days and 4 days. The percentage composition of saponin, alkaloid, tannin, flavonoid and total polyphenol in the L. nobilis leaves were 4.40%, 4.00%, 13.50%, 11.00%, and 0.010% respectively. In the L. nobilis leaf extract for 2 days and 4 days, F. solani had the highest radial growth of 44.00mm and 31.50mm obtained from ethanol and methanol at 300mg/ml and 400mg/ml respectively. The highest percentage mycelial growth inhibition for 2 days and 4 days were 40.74% and 39.06% obtained from F. solani and P. chrysogenum respectively. The results showed great antifungal activities of the leaves extracts against the selected isolates. From the antifungal activity, it could be noted that L. nobilis extracts in general, offers some potential in the combating of diseases caused by these fungal agents, and may be screened for activity
against several other human and plant pathogens.

Cymbopogon citratus (lemongrass) is an aromatic and medicinal grass widely used in food, cosmetics, and traditional medicine for its antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. These activities are linked to its diverse phytochemicals, including essential oils, phenolic acids, and flavonoids. Although the plant has been extensively studied, limited comparative data exists on how solvent polarity influences the extraction of its nutritional and bioactive constituents. This study therefore evaluated the proximate composition, phytochemical distribution, and phenolic profile of C. citratus using ethanol (polar) and diethyl ether (non-polar) as extraction solvents. Laboratory analyses employed various methods, including gravimetric techniques for proximate and phytochemical composition, spectrophotometric and acid titration methods for phytochemical determination, and GC-FID for detailed phenolic profiling. Fresh samples collected from the University of Benin were authenticated and subjected to standardized proximate and phytochemical analyses, supported by current literatures from PubMed, ScienceDirect, MDPI, and Google Scholar. Extraction yield was slightly higher with diethyl ether (1.72%) than with ethanol (1.56%), reflecting the solvent’s efficiency in dissolving non-polar constituents. Proximate analysis revealed high carbohydrate content (71.820%) and crude fibre content (3.225%), moderate crude protein (6.133%), ash content (2.117%), and moisture content (16.720%), and very low-fat content (1.552%). Antinutritional factors such as oxalates, phytates, and cyanogenic glycosides were found only in trace amounts, confirming nutritional safety. Phytochemical screening detected alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, steroids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, and phenolics in both extracts. Phenolic profiling showed diethyl ether enriched non-polar compounds including catechol (21.776ppm), hydroxyquinol (54.471ppm), and resorcinol (13.932ppm), while ethanol favored polar phenolics such as quinol (25.975ppm) and cinnamic acid (21.163ppm).

Chasmanthera dependens is commonly used in Africa traditional system for the management of several pathologies. This research was designed to asses the phytochemical and antioxidant activity of the methanol extract of Chasmanthera dependens roots. The result of the qualitative phytochemical screening revealed the presence of flavonoid, tannins, Terpeniods, reducing sugars, saponins and proanthovyanindins in the extract. The quantitative phytochemical screening further confirmed the concentration of flavonoid(8.61±0.74) tannins(87.05±1.27), proanthoncyanidins (45.1±1.5) and phenols(199.1±1.9). In vitro antioxidant properties of the extract has antioxidant properties as revealed by it's ferric acid antioxidant power (FRAP), and reducing potential. The phytochemicals in the extract was further identified and quantified by HPLC screening. The HPLC fingerprinting revealed a reported activity of Phytochemical with rich medicinal value. The study also shows that Chasmanthera dependens scavenged DPPH (16.59) reducing power increases in absorbance as the concentration of the plant increased. Conclusively this study provide more information on the medicinal use of Chasmanthera dependens and its good antioxidant properties.