International Studies and Diplomacy

Before European powers came to Africa, the continent was full of rich cultures, strong kingdoms, and well-organized societies. African civilizations developed on their own, with advanced systems of government, trade, art, and building. ¹ The pyramids in
Egypt, the Great Zimbabwe stone walls in Southern Africa, and the beautiful bronze works of the Benin Empire in West Africa are just a few examples. ² These achievements show that Africa had greatness long before the arrival of Europeans. However, things
began to change in the 19th century when European powers decided to take over African lands. At the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885, European countries met and divided Africa among themselves without asking Africans for their opinion. They treated the continent like a cake to be shared, ignoring the cultures, languages, and traditions of the people who already lived there.³

The discovery of coal in Enugu in 1909 has left an unprecedented impact as a significant source of heat and energy in Nigeria. It is one of the most important primary fossil fuels, a great source of heat and energy that has been used for generations dating back to 1000 B.C2 . Formed from the remnants of living organisms, the formation process can be described as the subversion of dead plant matter in an environment subjected to the geological forces of heat and pressure over millennials 3 National Geographic describes 4 coal ‘as a black or brownish-black sedimentary rock that can be burned for fuel and used to generate electricity. It is composed mostly of carbon and hydrocarbons, which contain energy that can be released through combustion (burning)’.

The repatriation of an item with deep historical, spiritual, and cultural significance might seem like a mere gesture of colonial redress. But this ceremony was different, and it was about much more than a single physical object. In fact, it was a watershed moment in the West’s recognition of the cultural damage inflicted by colonialism.1 This instance
only acts as one of many testaments to the role art that can play in international relations. In turn, while morality may play a role in a state’s decision to return these looted works, further political and economic incentives may provide a bigger insight into the rationale behind the return of these figures

This study examines Nigeria’s maritime security challenges with particular focus on piracy and illegal oil bunkering between 2000 and 2015. Nigeria’s maritime domain, especially in the Gulf of Guinea, has experienced increasing security threats due to criminal activities such as sea piracy, oil theft, armed robbery at sea, and illegal bunkering. These activities have posed serious threats to national security, economic development, and international maritime trade. The study investigates the causes, nature, and consequences of these maritime crimes and evaluates the efforts made by the government and relevant security agencies to address them. The research adopts a historical and descriptive research design, relying mainly on secondary sources of data such as books, journal articles, government reports, and publications from relevant maritime organizations. Institutions such as the Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety Agency (NIMASA) and the Nigerian Navy play significant roles in maintaining maritime security and combating piracy and illegal oil bunkering in Nigerian waters. The findings reveal that factors such as weak maritime surveillance, corruption, poverty in coastal communities, inadequate law enforcement, and the high profitability of oil theft have contributed significantly to the persistence of piracy and illegal bunkering. These activities have led to revenue loss for the government, environmental degradation, insecurity in the maritime sector, and reduced investor confidence. The study concludes that addressing maritime security challenges in Nigeria requires stronger maritime governance, improved surveillance technology, enhanced collaboration among security agencies, and sustainable economic development in coastal communities. It recommends increased investment in maritime security infrastructure, stricter enforcement of maritime laws, and regional cooperation to effectively combat piracy and illegal oil bunkering in Nigerian waters.

Nigeria's maritime environment, particularly the Gulf of Guinea, is a critical economiczone for the country and the broader West African region; it serves as a vital hub for international trade, with oil production and shipping forming the backbone of the Nigerian economy.
However, this maritime domain has been plagued by security challenges, notably piracy and illegal oil bunkering Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea has evolved into a major regional concern, with attacks targeting commercial vessels, resulting in ransom
demands, theft, and kidnapping of crew members.
Between 2000 and 2015, piracy incidents in Nigerian waters surged, making the Gulf of Guinea one of the most dangerous regions for maritime navigation globally