Extraction

The growing need for sustainable and environmentally friendly materials across various sectors has generated an increased interest in the extraction of bamboo fibres. The primary objective of this study is to tackle the obstacles linked with bamboo fibre extraction and analyze the effectiveness of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution in improving the quality of the extracted fibres. The endeavour was initiated to analyze the historical progression of bamboo fibre extraction techniques, the significance of chemical treatments in fibre processing, and the specific impacts of NaOH treatment on fibre characteristics. The study encompassed an extensive review of pieces of literature to comprehend the context and importance of bamboo fibre extraction, encompassing both conventional techniques and contemporary advancements. The experimental arrangement for distilled water and NaOH treatment was formulated, encompassing variables such as concentration fluctuations at 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% NaOH. The weight of water used was also calculated to be 1000g, 950g, 900g, 850g, and 800g to form solutions respectively. The Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was applied to investigate the chemical structure of fibres before and after treatment, providing important details on the success of the extraction method. Data collection techniques involved sample preparation, maintenance of controlled environmental conditions, and statistical evaluation of experimental findings. The outcomes showed that NaOH treatment efficiently dissolved lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose constituents from the bamboo fibres, resulting in purer and cleaner fibre outputs. FTIR analysis corroborated the partial elimination of non-cellulosic components, with heightened NaOH concentration correlating with increased removal of lignin and hemicellulose. The discoveries from this investigation enhance comprehension of the chemical composition of bamboo fibres and underscore the potential of NaOH treatment in refining extraction processes. Additionally, the implications of the outcomes for industrial utilization, alongside suggestions for future research, are comprehensively deliberated.

The growing need for sustainable and environmentally friendly materials across various sectors has generated an increased interest in the extraction of bamboo fibres. The primary objective of this study is to tackle the obstacles linked with bamboo fibre extraction and analyze the effectiveness of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution in improving the quality of the extracted fibres. The endeavour was initiated to analyze the historical progression of bamboo fibre extraction techniques, the significance of chemical treatments in fibre processing, and the specific impacts of NaOH treatment on fibre characteristics. The study encompassed an extensive review of pieces of literature to comprehend the context and importance of bamboo fibre extraction, encompassing both conventional techniques and contemporary advancements. The experimental arrangement for distilled water and NaOH treatment was formulated, encompassing variables such as concentration fluctuations at 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% NaOH. The weight of water used was also calculated to be 1000g, 950g, 900g, 850g, and 800g to form solutions respectively. The Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was applied to investigate the chemical structure of fibres before and after treatment, providing important details on the success of the extraction method. Data collection techniques involved sample preparation, maintenance of controlled environmental conditions, and statistical evaluation of experimental findings. The outcomes showed that NaOH treatment efficiently dissolved lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose constituents from the bamboo fibres, resulting in purer and cleaner fibre outputs. FTIR analysis corroborated the partial elimination of non-cellulosic components, with heightened NaOH concentration correlating with increased removal of lignin and hemicellulose. The discoveries from this investigation enhance comprehension of the chemical composition of bamboo fibres and underscore the potential of NaOH treatment in refining extraction processes. Additionally, the implications of the outcomes for industrial utilization, alongside suggestions for future research, are comprehensively deliberated.

Kola (Cola nitida) leaves are widely known for their ethnobotanical uses, yet their by- products remain underexplored as sources of bioactive compounds for environmental applications. Fermentation of plant-derived substrates often enhances their physicochemical profile, making them useful in biostimulation processes that support microbial activity for pollutant degradation. Against this background, this study investigated Cola nitida whey, focusing on its extraction, fermentation behavior, and nutrient composition, with the aim of assessing its potential application as a bioremediant. Fresh kola leaves were processed through washing, grinding, boiling, and filtration to obtain whey, which was digested with nitric acid and subjected to physicochemical analysis. Parameters evaluated included pH, electrical conductivity (EC), moisture content, total organic matter (TOM), total organic carbon (TOC), nitrate, phosphate, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Results showed dynamic changes across the five- week fermentation period. pH decreased initially from 5.29 in Week 1 to 5.18 in Week 3 before rising to 6.01 in Week 5, while EC steadily increased from 1595.50 to 2129.50 µS/cm, reflecting ionic release. Moisture content rose from 92.08% to 94.09%, whereas TOM and TOC increased overall, with TOM ranging from 54.06 to 106.55% and TOC from 31.36 to 61.80%. Nutrient levels indicated progressive mineralization: nitrate rose from 174.16 to 1152.36 mg/kg, phosphate from 411.67 to 971.81 mg/kg, nitrogen from 39.56 to 261.06 mg/kg, and phosphorus from 122.75 to 295.46 mg/kg. Potassium fluctuated but stabilized at 2.55 mg/kg by Week 5. These findings suggest that kola-leaf whey develops enriched organic and mineral content during fermentation, creating a nutrient-rich medium favorable for microbial proliferation. The shift toward near-neutral pH at later stages further supports microbial activity, while the elevated nitrate and phosphate levels highlight its suitability as a low-cost, plant-derived stimulant for bioremediation, although regulated application is recommended to minimize eutrophication risks.

This study investigates the extraction and acetylation of cellulose from Sporobolus pyramidalis, commonly known as Giant Rat Tail Grass, an abundant yet underutilized plant species. Cellulose was extracted through a series of chemical treatments, including alkali and bleaching processes, to remove lignin, hemicellulose, and other non-cellulosic components. The extracted cellulose was
characterized using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), which showed peaks closely matching those of commercial cellulose. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was also employed to confirm the structure of the extracted cellulose. The cellulose was then acetylated using acetic anhydride and sulfuric acid to enhance its thermal stability, hydrophobicity, and solubility. FTIR analysis confirmed the successful acetylation, with peaks closely aligning with those of commercial cellulose acetate. The acetylated cellulose exhibited improved properties, including enhanced solubility in organic solvents and thermoplasticity, making it suitable for use in bioplastics, coatings, and other biodegradable materials. This research highlights the potential of Sporobolus pyramidalis as a renewable source of cellulose and contributes to the development of sustainable, biomass- based materials.

This study explores the extraction and characterization of starch composites derived from unripe banana (Musa spp.) reinforced with okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) fibre, with a focus on their structural, chemical, and mechanical properties. The starch was extracted from unripe bananas sourced from Evbuotubu, Benin City, while okra fibres were obtained from Oluku Market. Composite formulations were prepared by blending 10 g of banana starch with 3 g of okra fibre and plasticized using 5mL of glycerol. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis confirmed enhanced hydrogen bonding interactions in the fibre-reinforced composite, evidenced by a stronger and slightly shifted O-H stretching peak (3300–3400 cm⁻¹) and the emergence of carboxyl (C=O) functionalities around 1700–1750 cm⁻¹. Elemental analysis revealed a decrease in carbon content from 70.02% (0G fibre) to 66.88% (3G fibre) and an increase in nitrogen from 23.40% to 29.56%, suggesting the introduction of nitrogen-rich organic components from okra fibre. The presence of calcium (0.48%) in the 3G fibre composite, absent in the 0G fibre sample, indicates mineral incorporation. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images showed a denser microstructure in the 0G fibre composite, whereas the 3G fibre composite exhibited a rougher and more porous texture, indicative of improved fibre-starch interfacial adhesion. Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) demonstrated enhanced thermal stability in the fibre-reinforced composite, with a higher degradation onset temperature and increased residual char content, confirming its resistance to thermal decomposition. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) patterns indicated a reduction in crystallinity upon fibre incorporation, as evidenced by broader and less intense diffraction peaks, suggesting a transition to a more amorphous structure. These findings demonstrate that okra fibre reinforcement significantly enhances the mechanical strength, thermal stability, and flexibility of starch composites, making them suitable for biodegradable applications in packaging and sustainable material development.

This study aims to optimize the extraction of bioactive compounds from guava leaves using the Soxhlet extraction method to investigate the impact of key variables such as mass of the solvent, temperature and extraction time (hours) on the bioactive extraction yield, to characterize the extracted bioactive compounds to identify key functional groups, and to optimize the bioactive yield. The study employed a central composite design (CCD), with 19 experimental runs where Response Surface Method (RSM) was utilized to optimize extraction conditions, evaluating the effects of mass (1.00-10.00 g), extraction time (30-300 min), and temperature (50-90°C). ANOVA and quadratic regression models assessed the influence of these variables on the yields of terpenoids and flavonoids. The qualitative and quantitative analysis of extracted compounds was conducted using colorimetric chemical tests and FTIR spectroscopy. Statistical validation included model significance testing (p-values), R², adjusted R², predicted R², and adequate precision. The qualitative analysis of guava leaf extract identified flavonoids (yellow), terpenoids (reddish- brown), saponins (froth), alkaloids (reddish-brown precipitate), and tannins (greenish-black). Quantitative results showed the highest percentages in flavonoids (15%) and terpenoids (16%), followed by saponins (2%), alkaloids (1.75%), and tannins (0.183%). Extraction efficiency was highest at intermediate conditions, with significant quadratic effects observed for all three independent variables. The regression models yields for the two major extract, terpenoid and flavonoid, demonstrated high accuracy with R2 is 0.7915 for terpenoid and R² = 0.8957 for flavonoid, with ANOVA confirming model significance (F-value = 0.17, p = 0.9585) and (F- value = 8.59, p = 0.0019) for terpenoid and flavonoid respectively. Also, the extraction yield was significantly affected by mass, time, and temperature. Terpenoid yield declined beyond 55 g and 165 min due to solvent saturation, while flavonoids degraded above 70°C. Optimal conditions enhanced solubilization and diffusion, but excessive parameters caused thermal degradation, volatilization, poor solvent penetration, and reduced extraction efficiency. These findings support guava leaves as a rich source of bioactive compounds with antioxidant, anti- v | P a g e inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties, valuable for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications.

This work entails extraction, characterization and thermal stability studies with tigernut(Cyperus esculentus) oil. The Tigernut used in this work was obtained from an open market in Benin city. Oil extraction was carried out by soxhlet extraction using n-hexane as a solvent. Parameters studied were free fatty acid (FFA) content giving 0.48% as result, peroxide value(PV) with results of 1.96meq/kg and 7.80meq/kg for the raw oil and treated oil respectively, refractive index (RI) test- 69% and 69.5% brix for both raw and treated oil respectively and measurement of absorbance of the raw and treated oil at 234nm and 270nm. Additionally, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to identify the functional groups present in the oil. Findings indicate that the oil is thermally stable when treated with heat. Due to the highly nutritional properties of this oil, it has found wide usefulness in culinary arts, pharmaceutical products and even cosmetics