CATALYST TERNARY BLEND

This study addresses the growing demand for renewable energy and sustainable chemical processes by investigating the production of a novel, bifunctional heterogeneous catalyst derived from readily available waste banana peels, zeolite, and periwinkle shells for biodiesel synthesis. The methodology involved systematic catalyst synthesis from the three precursor materials through calcination at 800°C for 3 hours, followed by characterization using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy to confirm Ca–Si–Ti oxide phase formation and identify crystalline structures contributing to catalytic activity. Feedstock physicochemical properties including acid value, iodine value, saponification value, density, and viscosity were determined. Simplex lattice mixture design optimized the neem oil-waste cooking oil blending ratio for maximum free fatty acid reduction. The transesterification process employed response surface methodology (RSM) with 29 experimental runs to optimize reaction parameters: time (30–150 minutes), temperature (40–80°C), catalyst loading (1–10 wt%), and methanol-to-oil ratio (3:1–10:1). Kinetic studies determined reaction order and activation energy, while gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyzed the fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) composition of the produced biodiesel.