PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL

The global shift toward sustainable energy has intensified interest in biodiesel as an environmentally friendly alternative to fossil fuels. This study investigates the production of biodiesel from waste cooking oil (WCO) using calcined heterogeneous catalysts derived from waste materials, including pumpkin pods and turkey bones, and its subsequent preservation using natural extracts from Azadirachta indica (neem) and Ocimum gratissimum (African basil). Transesterification was carried out in a pilot-scale reactor at 60 °C for 75 minutes. Characterization of the WCO prior to transesterification showed an acid value of 2.41 mg KOH/g and a free fatty acid (FFA) content of 1.21%, indicating moderate degradation from repeated frying. Post-treatment analysis revealed a slight increase in acid value to 3.07 mg KOH/g, while other parameters, including saponification value (251.83 mg KOH/g), density (0.8948 g/cm³), and viscosity (9.50 mPa·s), remained within acceptable ranges for biodiesel feedstock. The produced biodiesel met key ASTM D6751 specifications, with a density of 0.87 g/cm³, acid value of 0.34 mg KOH/g, viscosity of 4.62 mm²/s, and a flash point of 220 °C, confirming its suitability for use as a fuel or in blends. GC-MS analysis revealed a fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) composition dominated by methyl oleate (48.68%) and methyl palmitate (37.48%). FTIR spectroscopy further confirmed successful transesterification through the presence of a characteristic ester carbonyl absorption peak at 1742.81 cm⁻¹. Stability studies conducted over six weeks showed that the combined treatment of neem and basil extracts (30 ml) resulted in the lowest final acid value of 0.78 mg KOH/g, indicating improved oxidative stability. This study demonstrates that waste cooking oil is a viable and cost-effective feedstock for biodiesel production. Furthermore, the use of locally sourced plant extracts as natural stabilizers offers a sustainable and biodegradable approach to enhancing biodiesel storage stability, supporting the advancement of renewable energy technologies in Nigeria.

The increasing demand for sustainable energy sources has driven the exploration of biodiesel as a viable alternative to fossil fuels. This study focuses on the development of biomass-derived catalysts for the production of biodiesel using a blend of non-edible oils: neem, shea, and jatropha. The research aims to address the challenges associated with conventional catalytic processes, such as high costs, environmental impact, and inefficiencies, by utilizing agricultural waste products to create sustainable and cost-effective catalysts.
The project involved the synthesis of biomass-derived catalysts from plantain peels and coconut husks, which were characterized for their physical and chemical properties. The transesterification process was optimized using the Box-Behnken Design (BBD) to determine the effects of reaction temperature, reaction time, catalyst load, and methanol-to-oil mole ratio on biodiesel yield. The results indicated that the optimal conditions for biodiesel production were a reaction temperature of 60°C, a reaction time of 90 minutes, a catalyst load of 5.5 wt%, and a methanol-to-oil mole ratio of 6.5:1, yielding a maximum biodiesel yield of 92.37%.
The biodiesel produced from the oil blend was characterized according to ASTM standards, and the results showed that the physical and chemical properties, including density, viscosity, flash point, and acid value, were within acceptable limits for biodiesel. The study demonstrated that biomass-derived catalysts are effective in producing high-quality biodiesel from non-edible oil blends, offering a sustainable and economically viable alternative to conventional catalysts. This research contributes to the advancement of renewable energy technologies by providing a framework for the utilization of locally sourced agricultural waste in biodiesel production. The findings highlight the potential of biomass-derived catalysts to enhance biodiesel yield and qualitywhile reducing environmental impact, thereby supporting the transition to sustainable energy
solution.

Transport powered by fossil fuels is becoming more dependent on global industrialization, which is accelerating the loss of these resources and exacerbating climate change. Beyond environmental issues, this dependence impedes socio-economic progress and the Sustainable Development Goals. Using calcined calcium phosphate effluent from sugar refining as a solid heterogeneous catalyst,
this research aims to manufacture biodiesel.

To optimize crucial process variables, this work utilized EDX analysis Response Surface Methodology (RSM) to convert waste cooking oil (WCO) into biodiesel. The catalyst, calcium phosphate scum, is derived from the sugar refining industry and is heterogeneous. After 29 iterations with a 5-level-4 factor Central Composite Design, a quadratic polynomial model was finalized. Reaction time (60-90 min), catalyst-to-oil weight ratio (1-4%), reaction temperature (40-70 °C), and methanol-to-oil ratio (6:1-18:1) were all fine-tuned in the study. It was proven that under these perfect conditions, used cooking oil may be transesterified.

Calcium zinc hydrogen phosphate (47%), fluorapatite (33%), osumilite (13.8%), and quartz (6.5%) were the solid mineral components found in the catalyst characterization results. These components were calcined to calcium oxides at a temperature of 1000℃. A significant pore capacity of 0.213cc/g and a high surface area of 235.505m2/g were found in the catalyst, respectively, according to the analytical analysis. This allows reactants to permeate quickly into the catalyst's interior. Based on the catalyst's elemental makeup, we know that it contains 50.4% silicon oxide (SiO2) and 41.436% aluminum oxide (Al2O3). FTIR study of catalyst indicated a medium stretch peak of methyl (C-H) group. SEM microscopy showed homogeneous spherical particles. EDS examination of catalyst revealed the presence of calcium and phosphorus in weight concentration at 62.67% and 25.99% respectively. Other elements were in trace levels.

With a reaction temperature of 55°C, a catalyst-to-oil weight ratio of 5%, a reaction time of 90 minutes, and a methanol to oil ratio of 12:1, numerical optimisation gave a maximum biodiesel yield of 93.2%.Notably, the reaction was highly impacted (p < 0.0001) by the catalyst concentration, time, and methanol-to-oil ratio. Consequently, it was found that Calcium Phosphate Scum derived from sugar refining businesses offers a cost-effective and efficient substitute for calcium oxide heterogeneous catalysts in biodiesel synthesis.